Abstract
Attachment is an intrinsic relational mechanism that influences individuals' perceptions, behaviours, and relationships. Extensive research has consistently linked parenting styles to attachment patterns in adulthood. This study aimed to examine the relationship between parenting styles and romantic attachment in adults and whether gender served as a moderating variable. A total of 146 students (128 females, 18 males) from Maldives National University, aged 18 to 49, who were either married or in a dating relationship completed an online survey assessing parenting styles using the Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ) and romantic attachment styles using the Experiences in Close Relationships (ECR) Scale. Results of correlational analyses revealed that perceived authoritarian parenting had a positive association with attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance, suggesting an insecure attachment pattern. Permissive and authoritative parenting styles negatively correlated with these attachment dimensions, reflecting a secure romantic attachment. Contrary to expectations, gender did not moderate these relationships. The study's limitations include a gender imbalance and a focus on perceived maternal parenting styles only. The results have practical implications for therapeutic interventions, parenting practices, and educational programs aimed at fostering secure attachments. Additionally, they highlight the need for future research to explore other moderating variables and longitudinal effects of parenting on attachment across diverse cultural contexts.
References
Bartholomew, K. (1990). Avoidance of intimacy: An attachment perspective. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 7, 147-178.
Bartholomew, K., & Horowitz, L. M. (1991). Attachment styles among young adults: A test of a four category model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 226-244
Baumrind, D. (1971). Current patterns of parental authority. Developmental Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0030372
Baumrind, D. (1966). Effects of Authoritative Parental Control on Child Behavior. Child Development, 37(4), 887-907Baumrind D. (1971). Current patterns of parental authority. Developmental Psychology Monograph, 4(1), 1–103. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431691111004
Bhalla, T.S. & Cherian, J. (2024). Influence of Parenting Styles on Attachment Styles, Romantic Relationships and Self-Esteem. International Journal of Indian Psychology, 12(2), 280-286. DIP:18.01.436.20241202, DOI:10.25215/1202.436
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss. Harmondsworth, Mddx.: Harmondsworth, Mddx., Penguin.
Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss: Vol. 2. Separation: Anxiety and anger. New York: Basic Books.
Bowlby, J. (1979). The making and breaking of affectional bonds. London: Tavistock.
Bowlby, J. (1980). Attachment and loss: Vol. 3. Loss: Sadness and depression. New York: Basic Books.
Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss: retrospect and prospect. The American journal of orthopsychiatry, 52(4), 664-678. doi:10.1111/j.1939-0025.1982.tb01456.x
Buri, J. R. (1991). Parental Authority Questionnaire. Journal of Personality Assessment, 57(1), 110–119. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa5701_13
Candel, O.-S., & Turliuc, M. N. (2019). Insecure attachment and relationship satisfaction: A meta-analysis of actor and partner associations. Personality and Individual Differences, 147(147), 190–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.04.037
Cassidy, J., & Shaver, P. R. (1999). Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications. In Google Books. Rough Guides. https://books.google.mv/books?id=haEfq-nKqjgC&printsec=copyright&source=gbs_pub_info_r#v=onepage&q&f=false
Chen, W.-W., Yuan, H., Yang, X., & Lai, S. K. (2020). Parenting, self-concept, and attitudes about romantic relationships. Journal of Adolescence, 82(1), 41–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2020.06.003
Dalton, W. T., Frick-Horbury, D., & Kitzmann, K. M. (2006). Young Adults’ Retrospective Reports of Parenting by Mothers and Fathers: Associations With Current Relationship Quality. The Journal of General Psychology, 133(1), 5–18. https://doi.org/10.3200/genp.133.1.5-18
Darling, N., & Steinberg, L. (1993). Parenting style as context: An integrative model. Psychological Bulletin, 113(3), 487–496. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.113.3.487
Das, R. (2016). Relationship Between Perceived Parenting Style and Emotional Regulation Ability Among Indian Young Adults. International Journal of Indian Psychology, 10(4). https://doi.org/10.25215/1004.001
Di Pentima, L., Toni, A., & Roazzi, A. (2023). Parenting Styles and Moral Disengagement in Young Adults: The Mediating Role of Attachment Experiences. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 184(5), 322–338. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221325.2023.2205451
Doinita, N.E. and Maria, N.D. (2015). Attachment and parenting styles, Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 203, 199–204. http10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.08.282.
Fan, W. (2023). The Effect of Parenting Styles of Original Families on Individual’s Close Relationship. Journal of Education, Humanities and Social Sciences, 8, 1848–1853. https://doi.org/10.54097/ehss.v8i.4595
Feeney, J., & Noller, P. (1990). Attachment style as a predictor of adult romantic relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58(2), 281-291.
Freeman, H., Simons, J., & Benson, N. F. (2023). Romantic Duration, Relationship Quality, and Attachment Insecurity among Dating Couples. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(1), 856. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20010856
Gray M. R., Steinberg L. (1999). Adolescent romance and the parent–child relationships: A contextual perspective. In Furman W., Brown B. B., Feiring C. (Eds.), The development of romantic relationships in adolescence (pp. 235–265). Cambridge University Press.
Garcia, O. F., Fuentes, M. C., Gracia, E., Serra, E., & Garcia, F. (2020). Parenting Warmth and Strictness across Three Generations: Parenting Styles and Psychosocial Adjustment. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(20), 7487. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17207487
García, O. F., Serra, E., Zacarés, J. J., & García, F. (2018). Parenting Styles and Short- and Long-term Socialization Outcomes: A Study among Spanish Adolescents and Older Adults. Psychosocial Intervention, 27(3), 153–161. https://doi.org/10.5093/pi2018a21
Hadiwijaya, H., Klimstra, T. A., Darling, N., Vermunt, J. K., Branje, S., & Meeus, W. H. J. (2020). The family context as a foundation for romantic relationships: A person-centered multi-informant longitudinal study. Journal of Family Psychology, 34(1), 46–56. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000601
Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. (1987). Romantic Love Conceptualized as an Attachment Process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(3), 511-524. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.52.3.511
Hoenicka, M. A. K., López-de-la-Nieta, O., Martínez Rubio, J. L., Shinohara, K., Neoh, M. J. Y., Dimitriou, D., Esposito, G., & Iandolo, G. (2022). Parental bonding in retrospect and adult attachment style: A comparative study between Spanish, Italian and Japanese cultures. PLOS ONE, 17(12), e0278185. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0278185
Hulley SB, Cummings SR, Browner WS, Grady D, Newman TB. Designing clinical research: an epidemiologic approach. 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2023. Appendix 6C, page 172.
Karre, J. K. (2015). Fathering Behavior and Emerging Adult Romantic Relationship Quality: Individual and Constellations of Behavior. Journal of Adult Development, 22(3), 148–158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-015-9208-3
Kim, S., Baek, M., & Park, S. (2021). Association of Parent–child Experiences with Insecure Attachment in Adulthood: A Systematic Review and Meta‐analysis. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 13(1), 58–76. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12402
Maria, Alejandra, Koeneke, Hoenicka., Oscar, López-de-la-Nieta., J.L., Martínez, Rubio., Kazuyuki, Shinohara., Michelle, Jin-Yee, Neoh., Dagmara, Dimitriou., Gianluca, Esposito., Giuseppe, Iandolo. (2022). Parental bonding in retrospect and adult attachment style: A comparative study between Spanish, Italian and Japanese cultures. PLOS ONE, 17(12):https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0278185
Rholes, W. S., & Simpson, J. A. (2004). Attachment Theory: Basic Concepts and Contemporary Questions.
Ripardo, R. C., & Lordelo, E. da R. (2022). Controlling mothers, insecure daughters: parental style and adult attachment. Arquivos Brasileiros de Psicologia, 73(3), 189–203. https://doi.org/10.36482/1809-5267.arbp2021v73i3p.189-203
Scharfe, E. (2016). Sex Differences in Attachment. Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Psychological Science, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16999-6_3592-1
Tani, F., Pascuzzi, D., & Raffagnino, R. (2017). The Relationship Between Perceived Parenting Style and Emotion Regulation Abilities in Adulthood. Journal of Adult Development, 25(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-017-9269-6
Varzaneh, A. H., Fathi, E., & Esmaeily, M. (2014). The mediating role of secure attachment style in the relationship between authoritative parenting style and personal commitment in marital relationship among married women. International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research, 1(1), 238- 248
Wang, Z., & Chen, W.-W. (2022). Is the Way I was Raised Linked to How I Love? Perceived Parenting and Implicit Theories of Relationships. Emerging Adulthood, 216769682211309. https://doi.org/10.1177/21676968221130920
Wang, H. (2023). The Influence of Parenting Styles on Attachment Styles and Parental Influence on Children’s Cognitive Development. SHS Web of Conferences, 180, 02026. https://doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/202318002026
Wilhelm, K. (2016). Parental Bonding and Adult Attachment Style: The Relationship between Four Category Models. International Journal of Women’s Health and Wellness, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.23937/2474-1353/1510016
Yahya, F., Nur, Ghazali, N. M., Azzahrah Anuar, & Aren Merikan. (2019). Adult Attachment and Parenting Styles. International Journal of Engineering and Technology, 8(1S), 193–199.
Zeinali, A., Sharifi, H., Enayati, M., Asgari, P., & Pasha, G. (2011). The mediational pathway among parenting styles, attachment styles and self-regulation with addiction susceptibility of adolescents. Journal of Research in Medical Sciences : The Official Journal of Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, 16(9), 1105–1121. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3430035/